Sample Outline of an Expository Essay

Sample Outline of an Expository EssayIn order to write an effective expository essay, it is very important to create a sample outline of an expository essay. You should be able to find a sample outline of an expository essay that can be used to guide you in creating your own.Writing a sample outline of an expository essay can be a very helpful tool that will allow you to know what you need to do to write a good essay for the purpose of the class or for this particular essay. By using this guide, you will be able to formulate a lot of your ideas and organize them.The first thing that you need to do when looking for a sample outline of an expository essay is to write a proposal. This is basically a statement that tells the teacher about what you are going to do. It tells him or her what topics that you want to cover and what kind of essay that you would like to write. For example, you may want to write a proposal that involves a project that you would like to get involved in.Next, you should write a brief synopsis of the content that you are going to present. What this means is that you should tell the teacher the main point that you want to make as well as what the reason that you would like to make the passage.The key to writing a good essay for the class is to get the teacher to see what you are going to say through a description of the material that you have been discussing. It is important that you take a look at the written exam so that you can start identifying the right points that you are going to write about.The next important note that you need to pay attention to is the introduction. This section should tell the reader about who you are and how you arrived at the conclusion that you are about to present. It should also tell the reader what the subject matter is and why it is important for the essay to be given.Finally, you should tell the reader about the main points of the essay. For example, you may want to make a big announcement, or make a point t hat you would like to explore in more detail later on. Although you will need to write the introduction, the important thing is that you will be able to know what you want to say.

Hegemony and Ideology

Hegemony and Ideology The media plays a pivotal role in defining the world and providing models for appropriate behavior and attitudes. Ideology has a link with concepts such as belief system, worldview and values, but is broader in context. The media is considered to be an avenue through which dissemination of ideology takes place. Hence, this is one reason why the media is often a subject of political debate.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Hegemony and Ideology specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The media is deemed a root of social evils and problems. In his campaign trail of 2000, President George W. Bush alleged that school violence was due to â€Å"dark dungeons of evil on the internet† (Kornblut and Scales cited in Croteau Hoynes 2003). Also, politicians from across the political realm blamed violent video games for the tragic shootings at Colorado Columbine High School in 1999. The media thus is perceived to sell both ideas and products and this paper will discuss how the media effectively achieves this by paying attention to ideology and hegemony. As shown by Marx and Frankfurt, ideology yields positive results by indicating that social power is operational via the cultural realm of society. People are grouped into social networks of oppression and subordination by ideological systems (Cottle 2000). Marxists often talk of ideology as a belief system used by those in power to justify their actions though distortion and misrepresentation of reality. Media uses ideology as a means to define and explain the world, and make value inferences on this world. Ideology in media does not focus on specific activities shown in newspapers, songs, or movies, rather it is interested in the broader system made up by such activities. Compatibility of images and words in a certain media text, thoughts and definitions of cultural and social issues are fundamental in ideological analysis (Croteau Hoynes 2003). Despite th e fact that mass media texts are comprehended ideologically as means of communication that have a higher regard for some set of ideas and not others, an explicit description of media ideology remains limited. Hegemony on the other hand deals with predominant influence of one group over other groups/group.Advertising Looking for essay on political sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Fiske defined hegemony as â€Å"exertion of a nation’s ideological and social, rather than military or coercive, power over another nation† (Fiske 1998, 310). In contemporary cultural society, hegemony is the dynamic means used by a dominant class to obtain and win the consent of the subordinate class. Ideology is very powerful because it is the means through which dominance of hegemonic institutions is gained. Therefore, consent should be won and re-won because courageous individuals may possess alternative ideologies that make them rebellious to hegemonic ones. Ideology, therefore, is integral in enabling a ruling, hegemonic institutions propagate the required consent for dominance. Media texts are seen as fundamental sites to basic social norms. This is because they play a role in depicting appropriate roles of men and women, employers and their employees, and parents and children. By so doing, the media disseminates the ideologies governing roles by various kinds of people. Ideology is fundamental in reinforcing perceptions and ideas in the minds of the audiences but, for it to have the powerful effect of changing these perceptions and ideas, a hegemonic aspect is essential. Media audiences define their being, and through such means social demarcation prevails. The U.S. cultural historians: Todd Gitlin and Williams, and British cultural studies headed by Stuart Hall, have applied false consciousness as the anticipated end product of hegemony. Hegemony has been deemed as the domination, via ide ology, of the ruling class and development of popular consent by Antonio Gramsci, an Italian Marxist. Hegemony is a concept that integrates persuasion from the dominant classes and consent from the dominated classes. It is used by Gitlin and other scientists to explain the process of the capitalisms promotion. Gitlins study implies that supremacy is maintained when those people who are responsible for the process can easily present the explanations of the subjects under consideration. The ruling class controls ideological space and restricts the thinking of society. The minor/dominated class ignorantly takes part in their domination as hegemony becomes a part of their daily routines and ideas (Gitlin 1980).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Hegemony and Ideology specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Media sites have become a site where cultural contests are staged. This is due to the varying ideological perspectives, which are a representation of different interests varying in power that creates a kind of conflict and struggles within media texts. Hegemony is not all about ideological domination; rather, it operates by using common sense while making assumptions on social life and terrain of things accepted as natural, or conventional. Gramsci says that by shaping commonsense assumptions, effective rule is achieved (1971). Common sense is the way that people conceive and perceive things without the need of critical evaluation. A young woman watches a sitcom on television each evening. The characters on this program, her favorite show, are young, thin, Caucasian, and attractive. She is also young, attractive, and Caucasian; watching the program informs and reinforces her perceptions of her successful appearance, her sense of belonging, and her identity as part of her generation (Gray 2005). Most people are not aware of how presentations of television are developed. The decision by consumers on any pro gram and advertisement is influenced by various parties and institutions. According to Marxist theorists, such parties and institutions are deemed to possess power and privilege. Ideology is useful in understanding contemporary media because it focuses on compatibility of hegemonic ideology with personal or societal ideologies. However, hegemony is more useful because it has an influential role that persuades the audience thereby creating dominance. The ability of the media’s hegemonic ideology to influence the ideology of an individual leads to subordination. Otherwise, hegemony alone is not enough to wage subordination because through hegemonic ideology, the dominated class engages in its domination without realizing it. In the excerpt given above, the ability of the media to shape and reinforce the ideology of the young woman creates a kind of subordination to the program. According to Althusser, ideology is the link between imaginary thinking with real existence: material existence (Althusser 1969, 296). Stuart Hall is one of the contemporary cultural and media critic rooted in Althusserian framework of ideology, and believes that audiences will accept some ideas and reject others depending on their individual differences, particular beliefs and cultural circumstances (Hall 2001).Advertising Looking for essay on political sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Hall regularly contours this scenario in his encoding-decoding typology that postulates the encoding of messages with their unique meanings by the sender, and the decoding of these messages by the audiences (2001). The audiences accept some of these meanings, develop new meanings, and reject some of the desired meanings. Postmodern Marxists embrace Gramscian hegemony characterized by persuasion of individuals and social classes to accept social values and norms of an exploitative system (Gramsci 1971). In the contemporary social world, there are conflicting ideologies as mentioned earlier on. As a result, hegemony comes in and plays an essential role in influencing the decision of the audience. Gramsci describes hegemony as a form of social power that is dependent on voluntarism and willing participation and is seen as common sense that governs people’s understanding of the world (Gramsci 1971, 333). Integration of hegemony in ideology is what defines and helps to understand contemporary media. Individuals, who are lovers of romantic novels and films, begin watching the movie with their certain ideologies in mind, but at the end of the novel or film, their ideologies become influenced and changed via hegemony. In a story of â€Å"I Followed My Dream† (True Romance 1980 cited in Williams 1977), the hegemony of patriarchy influences and changes the feminist ideas of a young woman. The character in this story possesses feminist ideas that guide her thinking. She does not intend to get married to a Chauvinist, who will just regard her as a servant. However, she falls in love and actually performs wifely duties as required of her. This story is influential to the audience, and is an indication of hegemonic ideology. The main theoretical concept that governs contemporary ideology of media is hegemony. Hegemony encompasses culture, power and ideology. The media is perceived to possess a powerful hegemony over the audience thus making them less independe nt. Freedom of the press, which is leading slogan in almost all media stations, should be understood to mean ‘power of the press’. The media has had a powerful influential role on the audiences. Several instances include the rise of nationalism in Serbia (Meeuwis 1993), inciting ethnic hatred in Rwanda and South Africa, as well as triggering the post-election violence in Kenya. Despite the fact that the media depicts various ideologies, hegemony is very imperative in contemporary media as far as power, dominance and influence are concerned. In the Contemporary American society, the media has been referred to as a center of culture wars against fundamental issues related to morality (Hunter 1991). There are struggles over morality and values as the media tries to persuade audiences to accept the images being disseminated. The nomination of Eminem’s album ‘The Marshall Mathers LP’ in the year 2001 stirred up a lot of controversy as a result of the angr y and violent lyrics by the rapper in his depictions of gays, women and lesbians. The media has become the avenue through which change in lifestyle, sexuality and behavior is propagated, and persuades the audiences. Right now, the issue of single motherhood has been swept under the rug just because the media has shown it as acceptable thus most women nowadays are becoming single out of mere choice (Croteau Hoynes 2003). In addition, the Third World countries have been imposed on by the Western countries in terms of clothing, diet, body size, lifestyle, etc. via the media. Hegemonic ideology has been very influential in changing people’s (audiences’) ways and thoughts. The media is an area where change is inevitable noticed, from ideological sense to hegemony. The media, therefore, is a powerful tool that greatly influences the thinking and behavior of the audience. The media is able to perform this role through hegemony/dominant ideology. Hegemonic ideology is able to influence the audiences, making them less independent such that they rely on the media for guidance. This is the reason why the media has been blamed for change and dilution of social norms and especially in Third World countries. References Althusser, L 1998, ‘Ideology and ideological state apparatuses’, in Rivkin, J Ryan, M (eds.), Literary theory: An anthology, Blackwell Publishers, Malden, pp. 294-304. Cottle, S (ed.) 2000, Ethnic Minorities and the Media: Changing Cultural Boundaries, Open University Press, Buckingham. Croteau, D Hoynes, W 2003, Media Society: Industries, Images, and Audiences, Sage Publications, Inc., California. Fiske, J 1998, ‘Culture, ideology and interpellation’, in Rivkin J Ryan M (eds.), Literary theory: An anthology, Blackwell Publishers, Malden, pp. 305-311. Gitlin, T 1980, The Whole World is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the Left, University of California Press, Berkeley. Gray, JB 2005, ‘Althuss er, Ideology, and Theoretical Foundations: Theory and Communication’, Journal of New Media Culture, 3, 1, ibiblio.org/nmediac/winter2004/gray.html. Gramsci, A 1971, Selections from the Prison Notebooks of Antonio Gramsci, International Publishers, New York. Hall, S 2001, ‘Encoding decoding’, in Durham, MG Kellner, DM (eds.), Media and cultural studies: Key works, Blackwell Publishers, Malden, pp. 166-176. Hunter, JD 1991, Culture Wars, Basic Books, New York. Meeuwis, M 1993, ‘Nationalist Ideology in News Reporting on the Yugoslav Crisis: A Pragmatic Analysis’, Journal of Pragmatics 20, 3, 217-237. Williams, R 1977, Marxism and Literature, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Definition and Examples of Crots in Composition

Definition and Examples of Crots in Composition In composition, a crot is a verbal bit or fragment used as an autonomous unit to create an effect of abruptness and rapid transition. Also called a blip. In  An Alternate Style: Options in Composition  (1980), Winston Weathers described crot  as an archaic word for bit or fragment. The term, he said, was revived by  American essayist and novelist  Tom Wolfe in his introduction to  The Secret Life of Our Times  (Doubleday, 1973). This is one of the few great ways that a fragment sentence can be used effectively - they are often used in poetry but can be used in other forms of literature as well. Examples and Observations in Literature New Years Eve on Broadway. 1931. The poets dream. The bootleggers heaven. The hat check girls julep of joy. Lights. Love. Laughter. Tickets. Taxis. Tears. Bad booze putting hics into hicks and bills into tills. Sadness. Gladness. Madness. New Years Eve on Broadway.(Mark Hellinger, New Years Eve on Broadway. Moon Over Broadway, 1931)The Crots of Mr. JingleAh! fine place, said the stranger, glorious pile - frowning walls - tottering arches - dark nooks - crumbling staircases - Old cathedral too - earthy smell - pilgrims feet worn away the old steps - little Saxon doors - confessionals like money-takers boxes at theatres - queer customers those monks - Popes, and Lord Treasurers, and all sorts of old fellows, with great red faces, and broken noses, turning up every day - buff jerkins too - matchlocks - Sarcophagus - fine place - old legends too - strange stories: capital and the stranger continued to soliloquize until they reached the Bull Inn, in the High Street, where the coach stopped.(Alfred Jingle in Charles Dickens, The Pickwick Papers, 1837) Coetzees CrotsWhat absorbs them is power and the stupor of power. Eating and talking, munching lives, belching. Slow, heavy-bellied talk. Sitting in a circle, debating ponderously, issuing degrees like hammer blows: death, death, death. Untroubled by the stench. Heavy eyelids, piggish eyes, shrewd with the shrewdness of generations of peasants. Plotting against each other too: slow peasant plots that take decades to mature. The new Africans, pot-bellied, heavy-jowled men on their stools of office: Cetshwayo, Dingane in white skins. Pressing downward: their power in their weight.(J.M. Coetzee, The Age of Iron, 1990)Crots in PoetryAh to be aliveon a mid-September mornfording a streambarefoot, pants rolled up,holding boots, pack on,sunshine, ice in the shallows,northern rockies.(Gary Snyder, For All)Crots in AdvertisingTell England. Tell the world. Eat more Oats.  Take Care of your Complexion. No More War. Shine your Shoes with Shino. Ask your Grocer. Children love Laxamalt.  Prepar e to meet thy God. Bungs Beer is Better. Try Dogsbodys Sausages. Whoosh the Dust Away. Give them Crunchlets. Snagsburys Soups are Best for the Troops.  Morning Star, best Paper by Far. Vote for Punkin and Protect your Profits. Stop that Sneeze with Snuffo. Flush your Kidneys with Fizzlets. Flush your Drains with Sanfect. Wear Wool-fleece next the Skin. Popps Pills Pep you Up. Whiffle your Way to Fortune. . . .Advertise, or go under.(Dorothy Sayers, Murder Must Advertise, 1933) Menckens CrotsTwenty million voters with IQs below 60 have their ears glued to the radio; it takes four days hard work to concoct a speech without a sensible word in it. Next day a dam must be opened somewhere. Four senators get drunk and try to neck a lady politician built like an overloaded tramp steamer. The Presidential automobile runs over a dog. It rains.(H.L. Mencken, Imperial Purple)Updikes CrotsFootprints around a KEEP OFF sign.Two pigeons feeding each other.Two showgirls, whose faces had not yet thawed the frost of their makeup, treading indignantly through the slush.A plump old man saying Chick, chick and feeding peanuts to squirrels.Many solitary men throwing snowballs at tree trunks.Many birds calling to each other about how little the Ramble has changed.One red mitten lying lost under a poplar tree.An airplane, very bright and distant, slowly moving through the branches of a sycamore.(John Updike, Central Park)Winston Weathers and Tom Wolfe on Crots- In its most intense form, the crot is characterized by a certain abruptness in its termination. As each crot breaks off, Tom Wolfe says, it tends to make ones mind search for some point that must have just been made- presque vu!- almost seen! In the hands of a writer who really understands the device, it will have you making crazy leaps of logic, leaps you never dreamed of before.The provenance of the crot may well be in the writers note itselfin the research note, in the sentence or two one jots down to record a moment or an idea or to describe a person or place. The crot is essentially the note left free of verbal ties with other surrounding notes. . . .The general idea of unrelatedness present in crot writing suggests correspondence- for those who seek it- with the fragmentation and even egalitarianism of contemporary experience, wherein the events personalities, places of life have no particular superior or inferior status to dictate priorities of presentation.(Winston Weathers, An Alternate Style : Options in Composition. Boynton/Cook, 1980) Bangs manes bouffants beehives Beatle caps butter faces brush-on lashes decal eyes puffy sweaters French thrust bras flailing leather blue jeans stretch pants stretch jeans honeydew bottoms eclair shanks elf boots ballerina Knight slippers.(Tom Wolfe, The Girl of the Year. The Kandy-Kolored Tangerine-Flake Streamline Baby, 1965)MontagePart of the power of moving images comes from the technique [Sergei] Eisenstein championed: montage. Here the tables turn in the contest between the novel and moving images, for in switching rapidly between perspectives, it is those who share their imaginations with us by writing who are at a disadvantage.Because writers must work to make each view they present believable, it is very difficult for them to present a rapid series of such views. Dickens, with his marvelous alertness, succeeds as well as any writer has: the whistling of drovers, the barking of dogs, the bellowing and plunging of oxen, the bleating of sheep, the grunting and squealing of pig s; the cries of the hawkers, the shouts, oaths, and quarrelling on all sides [Oliver Twist]. But when attempting to capture the energy and chaos of this stunning and bewildering market-morning scene, Dickens is often reduced to lists: Countrymen, drovers, butchers, hawkers, boys, thieves, idlers, and vagabonds of every low grade or crowding, pushing, driving, beating, whooping and yelling.(Mitchell Stephens, The Rise of the Image, the Fall of the Word. Oxford University Press, 1998) See also: Collage EssayIn Defense of Fragments,  Crots, and Verbless SentencesListMinor SentenceSentence FragmentSuite Amà ©ricaine, by H.L. MenckenUsing Sentence Fragments EffectivelyVerbless SentenceWhat Is a Sentence?

Eye-witness testimony Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Eye-witness testimony - Essay Example According to these researchers, other types of circumstantial evidence, such as fingerprints or DNA, are more reliable in identifying criminals. This essay argues that eyewitness identification is not only can get the murder, but also it has unreliable. The heart of the American criminal justice system is the honesty and reliability of eyewitnesses. The testimony of eyewitnesses can very much influence the decision of the judge or the members of jury. The jury tries to identify the reliability or honesty of the eyewitness secretly, without telling the basis of its final decision. Considering the weakness of the human memory, therefore, is very crucial to the criminal and legal justice system, because a lot of trials are focused on honest identifications (Wise et al. 2). Reaching a fair decision and a right identification is hard without the chance that eyewitnesses may not know wrongness in their identification or testimony. Without strong physical evidence, testimony of eyewitnesses is important every time prosecution tries to prove that the criminal and the defendant are the same. The correctness of an eyewitness testimony or identification is shaped by two types of variables, which are ‘estimator’ and ‘system’ (Cutler & Kovera 54). System variables are things that the criminal justice system can control, like directions taught to eyewitnesses before they go into a lineup. Estimator variables, on the other hand, are things that the criminal justice system cannot control and their effects can be studied. These variables could be the lightning in the place where the crime took place, how long the eyewitnesses saw the face of the criminal, and so on (Cutler & Kovera 54). But, still, eyewitnesses cannot be sure that their memory is right. Researchers say that weaknesses of the human memory negatively affect the truth of eyewitness testimony. Human memory is very hard to understand and study. Eyewitnesses can have a

Project Proposal ( HR & CSR Connection ) Research Paper

Project Proposal ( HR & CSR Connection ) - Research Paper Example It will be beneficial in determining whether the resources at the disposal of the project team are adequate for completing the proposed project successfully. The financial resources required to complete the project successfully are available but they are not adequate. Additional sources of funds will be acquired by obtaining loans from the local financial institutions and other non financial institutions. The technology required is also available and will be useful in ensuring that the project is completed within the budget and time limits that have been set for it. However, some advanced technologies such as software programs for simulation purposes will be leased out from other organizations or purchased from local or international vendors. This is because there is no team in the project that will be tasked with the responsibility of developing software programs. On the other hand, the operations of the existing software within the organization have been determined and all the readily available ones have been found to operate as required in accomplishing their desired objectives. The accessibility to data has already been acquired with the subjects to be interviewed or questioned having already given their consent to participation. The performance of the project will have adequate time to complete which has already been set aside by the management of the organization as covering a period of one year. The topic being covered will enable me to acquire my master degree as it is a requirement in my coursework. It will also enable me to acquire the skills of managing employees and other personnel working for an organization to ensure they assist in the effective attainment of the project’s goals. I will also be able to develop a fostering environment for the workers so that their productivity is augmented due to their increased satisfaction. The project

Vanitas :: essays research papers

Vanitas Vanitas, found in many recent pieces, is a style of painting begun in the 17th Century by Dutch artists. Artists involved in this movement include Pieter Claesz, Domenico Fetti and Bernardo Strozzi . Using still-life as their milieu, those artists and others like them provide the viewer with ideas regarding the brevity of life. The artists are giving us a taste of the swiftness with which life can fade and death overtakes us all. Some late 20th Century examples were shown recently at the Virginia Museum of Art in Richmond, Virginia. Among the artists represented in this show were Miroslaw Balka (Polish, b. 1958), Christian Boltanski (French, b. 1944), Leonardo Drew (American, b. 1961), Felix Gonzalez-Torres (American, b. Cuba, 1957- 1996), Jim Hodges (American, b. 1957), Anish Kapoor (British, b. India, 1954), and Jac Leirner (Brazilian, b. 1961). In the poem Vanitas Vanitatum by John Webster, we are given a clear view of this movement in the art world. â€Å"ALL the flowers of the spring Meet to perfume our burying† is a beautiful juxtaposition of the beauty of life and the sorrow of passing away. Actually, any definition of this term would be overshadowed by this poem, it so clearly sums up the meaning and importance behind the word Vanitas. "Vanitas still life with portrait of a young painter " by David Bailly includes such objects as dying flowers, a skull, a painting of musician, musical instruments (recorder, conductor’s baton), statuary of a young, virile man and a young child, a portrait of another young man, and a clean palette hanging on the wall. The meaning behind these articles can be manifold, depending upon one’s point of view, but I think they are all important symbols of the passing nature of vitality and life itself. The flowers, once brilliant and lovely, are now withering in their vase. Music, represented by a man playing a lute in a portrait on the wall and by numerous music related items (a recorder, a conductor’s baton) is itself transient and elusive. Obviously a skull can represent death, but it can just as easily be a reminder of what remains behind. The clean palette hanging on the wall is evocative of a clear start, a new beginning, the option available to us all t o begin again, before it’s too late! In â€Å"Wheel of Fortune†, by Audrey Flack, many objects illustrate the transient nature of this fragile life.

The Role of Civil Society in the

THE ROLE OF CIVIL SOCIETY IN THE DEMOCRATISATION PROCESS IN BOTSWANA INTRODUCTION One of the approaches to democratization is the fostering of civil society organizations. Botswana`s civil society organizations have a role to play in the country’s democratization process. As stated by Maundeni (2005) the argument is that the non-partisan character of Botswana’s civic organisations has not prevented them from participating actively in democratising the public space.In fact civil society has been portrayed as the prime catalyst for promoting democratisation process in developing countries, Africa in particular. This paper attempts to examine the above assertion in Botswana and posits the roles and contributions of civil society to democratisation process. CONCEPTS AND DEFINITONS WHAT IS CIVIL SOCIETY? The issue of defining what constitutes Civil Society is very controversial; it is defined in various ways. Indeed, the use of these terms in many instances depends on place and time, country and the existing legal framework for registering civil society organizations.Other factors include membership, mission, and form of organization and levels of operation. The World Bank defines civil society/NGOs as: â€Å"An association, society, foundation, charitable trust, non-profit corporation, or other juridical person that is not regarded under the particular legal system as part of the governmental sector and that is not operated for profit — viz. , if any profits are earned, they are not and cannot be distributed as such. It does not include trade unions, political parties, profit-distributing cooperatives, or churches. According to the Commission of European Communities â€Å"Civil society includes the following groups: trade unions and employers’ organizations (social partners); organizations representing social and economic players which are not social partners in the strict sense of the term†¦ non-governmental organizations which b ring people together in common cause, such as environmental organizations, human rights organizations, charities, professional associations, grass roots organizations; organizations that involve citizens in local and municipal life with a particular contribution from churches and religious communities.At one level, civil society can be described as all organized activity not associated with major institutional systems: government and administration, education and health delivery, business and industry, security and organized religion. They include religious/faith based organizations, cooperatives, trade unions, academic institutions, community and youth groups (Judge 1996). Civil societies are therefore created in the public interests and can do things which neither of the other national development actors-the government and the corporate sector-can do on their own.Civil societies would have as their main objective the improvement in the lives of the poorest and disadvantaged. This is where there is a role for the state: Harriss & de Rienzo (1997) suggest that the role played by civil society organizations will depend on the wider political setting, and on ways in which inequalities of power and resources are dealt with in the economic and political arena. DEMOCRACY The word is derived from the Greek word demos, which mean people rule. It can be defined as a system where the authority has its legitimacy in the will of what the people have expressed.Democracy at the same time puts demands on how the people’s will should come to expression. Two principles should apply political equality and principles of freedom. The first principle defines political citizenship and focuses on who should be involved in the political process. The second principle concerns freedoms of all kinds of political opinions that may be expressed during the political process. Democratic government aspires to serve under â€Å"the people† rather than ruling over them. Implemen ting some form of a voting system, usually involving indirect representation pursues this ideal.It shares links with the concept of a republic. DEMOCRATIZATION Like Civil society, the definition of democratisation has consistently been subjected to analytical scrutiny by social scientists, in particular, the political scientists. In his definition, Conteh-Morgan (1998) argues that democratisation is an increase in political equality and a decrease in coercive rule. Others argue that democratisation is synonymous to democratic consolidation and or the deepening of democratic practices (Diamond et al; 1995). It implies a process through which a political system becomes democratic.It is a process that is made up and caused by different factors; these can be connected with political or socio-economic structures and political institutions in which they act. It is a transition to democratic political systems, where democratic systems are taken to be those approximating to universal suffra ge, regular elections, a civil society, the rule of law and an independent judiciary. CIVIL SOCIETY AND DEMOCRATIZATION PROCESS IN BOTSWANA Civil society can be regarded as organisational life that is voluntary, self-generating, self-supporting, and autonomous from the state, and bound by a legal order or set of shared rules.It consists of a vast array of organisations, both formal and informal: interest groups, cultural and religious organisations, civil and developmental associations, issue-oriented movements, the mass media, research and educational institutions, and similar organisations. The difference between these groups and other society groups is that they are concerned with and act in the public realm, relate to the state (without seeking to win control over it), and encompass and respect pluralism and diversity.Civil society consists out of individuals from different groups who are seeking change within a society. Through organising themselves in various forms of protests to show that they demand their rights, civil society has proved to be powerful when a few societies have transformed from non-democracies into democracies. This implies that the functioning of democracy requires a strong civil society, but a civil society that is politicised, and interacts with the state through concrete participation in decision-making processes.TYPES OF CIVIL SOCIETY AND THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS TO DEMOCRATISATION Research and Advocacy Groups: these are few without a membership base but effective think-tank research and policy advocacy NGOs. They have easy access to the Botswana policy makers and have established cordial relationship with the foreign donors. Some of these organisations do not only participate in drafting key policy documents for the governments, they also consult for the present regime on governance, economic, security and development issues.They have contributed significantly through research and advocacy to deepen democratic practices under the pres ent government. In his 2005 edition, Maudeni outlined the role of Democracy Research Project (DRP consisting of a academics) in the democratisation process. He showed that the DRP brought together different stakeholders in a way creating a platform where debates would be initiated and set in motion discussion about ways in which Botswana`s democracy might be improved. Maundeni reckons thus,the non-partisan DRP seeks to spark a democratisation debate nationally and infact has done so on past occassions.It has brought together politicians, academics, civil servants, journalists and traditional chiefs were brought together in a forum in which government politicians and officials did not exercise control over its proceedings. Human Rights and Democracy Advocacy Groups: Women NGOs These organisations advocated for the equality and recognition of women in the society, they were headed by a group of educated and committed women who provided leadership and who have worked as volunteers to b ring these organizations to where they are today.The groups include Young Women Christian Association, or Botswana Council of Women. Somolokae (1988) relates that these organisations have been dealing with purely welfare matters for decades and they enjoyed a good relationship with the state. Then during the mid-1980s, radical women’s groups entered the political scene. Examples here included Emang Basadi, and Metlhaetsile. From the onset, these organizations set out to challenge the state on policy issues. Emang Basadi was formed in 1984 to pressure the government to repeal all legislations which were discriminatory against women.At first, the reception was bad. Overtime, Emang Basadi together with other NGOs, began to network and push as a united front. When not much progress was being made, the groups under the leadership of Emang Basadi switched focus to a political agenda. The organization came up with a political education project to sensitize women about their politica l rights, encouraging them to vote for candidates who are committed to addressing the issues and concerns of women. This strategy seems to have worked as more women than ever showed interest in political power. Ditshwanelo – Botswana Center for Human RightsThe Botswana Centre for Human Rights was established in 1993 and since then has remained the only organisation in Botswana dealing with all aspects of human rights. It advocate for changes in laws, policies and practices, and to raise public awareness of rights and responsibilities and also provide paralegal services to those earning less than the minimum wage. Ditshwanelo also targeted its campaigns on the death penalty. In its recent statement commemorating World Day against the Death Penalty on October 10 2012, the NGO remains opposed to the death penalty vows to continue to campaign for its abolition in Botswana. t states that it is particularly concerned about the secretive and arbitrary conduct by the Government of Bo tswana, in its administration of the death penalty. The group also has partnership with other rights-focused organisations in Botswana, such as those focusing on gender equality or the rights of those affected by HIV/AIDS, complementing the work of its partners, and focusing on issues least supported by others, including the Basarwa / San (Bushmen), sexual minorities and domestic workers. Trade Unions These are organisations established to influence policies in favour of their members.They are very active in influencing economic and less of political policies. One of the leading and effective members of this group is the Botswana Federation of Public Service Union BOFEPUSU,it is popular in mobilizing workers to go on strike when the need arises and the government is aware of this strength as experienced in 2011. Inaugurating a New Trade Union Education Centre at Gaborone, Botswana on July 10, 1971, President Seretse Khama discussed the role of trade unions – present and futur e – in his country.He states â€Å"Free trade unions are an essential instrument of participatory democracy. It is through such unions that the workers can not only defend their interests but also make a positive contribution to national development. And if this contribution is to be effective trade unions must be free. They will not be an effective instrument of participatory democracy if they are manipulated by government, or by a political party or by any external agency. A trade union movement must seek to maintain the confidence of all its members irrespective of party affiliation.It must not become the agent of a political party. We in Botswana have given trade unions freedom to represent their members' interests and to guide the aspirations of our workers so that they make a productive contribution to national growth. We have not given them freedom to promote the interests of political parties or external powers. † In summary, below are the four broad roles that the civil society has been playing to deepen its contribution to the democratisation processes. Monitoring Role- This varies from one programme and organisation to another.The monitoring of the executive and legislatures for accountability and good governance for instance are most prevalent among the specialised research and advocacy NGOs while census, elections and budget implementation monitoring are common among the Network and coalitions. They have been performing this role, pointing to mistakes and how governments can overcome such mistakes. Capacity Building Role- Training and sensitization of citizens on their democratic and human rights and how these rights can be protected e. g. he rights of the citizens to hold accountable the elected representatives etc. This capacity building is not restricted to the citizens alone, the elected representatives have also benefited from such trainings e. g. , democratic control of military and security establishments, the making of partic ipatory and gender sensitive budgets etc. Another remarkable, although, ongoing contribution of civil society to the process of democratisation in Botswana; is the campaign for a new constitution for the country through the convocation of a sovereign national conference.Disciplinary Role- finally, the civil society has also been mobilising the citizens and call on government to discipline some of the elected representatives and bureaucrats for misconduct while in office through recalls and dismissal (though they have not been successful in this role). More efforts and capacity building- training and fiscal resources are needed to be successful in this role. The challenges of civil society Usually they represent only those sections of the population that are strong and self-aware.The viewpoints of civil society sometimes are conflicting and contradictory and there is a high possibility of susceptibility to foreign governments or foreign groups particularly if the CSO/NGO receives Int ernational funding. Sometimes, people working or serving in civil society are drawn to this sector due to the potential incomes they expect to receive rather than the ideology. This is particularly true with people working in NGOS. CONCLUSIONThe paper critically analysed the roles and contributions of civil society to the process of democratisation in Botswana and argued that the types of civil society and its advocacy strategies to a large extent determine the level of civil society’s contribution to democratic process. Investing in civil society groups whose activities have found resonance with the population is one way to promote the democratization of politics and the full participation of the citizenry in public life.The civil society must continue to employ a collective advocacy role to mobilize consensus for a national agenda of democratization, peace building and national reconciliation. Moving away from individualized, fragmented and disorganized advocacy to collecti ve advocacy is essential to becoming a strong countervailing force. It can also be concluded that civil society plays a critical role in strengthening democracy in that, it brings about the movement from a bureaucratic administration to a more representative administration.Civil society brings about active co-operation and an on-going commitment in the process of policy formulation and implementation between politicians, senior management, frontline workers, and citizens. Civil society encourages the divergence from the traditional regime-driven policy process to one where there is a multiplicity of negotiated determinants of the problem identification, formulation of policy principles, setting of objectives, development of options according to agreed criteria, and the formulation of an implementation strategy.The manner in which this is done and the contribution at various stages in the process characterize democracy. The dynamism of linkages underscored above ascribes to democracy as being about partnerships of all stakeholders in an endeavour to bring about synergies of efforts and resources. The civil society also strengthens democracy through fostering of complex relationships, not only among different institutions of state, but among all the stakeholders, from the most powerful titans to the poorest and most vulnerable people on society's marginsREFERENCES I. 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